India’s Rivers in Crisis: Causes, Impact, and the Road to Rejuvenation

Despite decades of legal measures and policy initiatives, river pollution in India remains a major environmental concern. Recent reports from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) during the Maha Kumbh in Prayagraj highlighted high levels of faecal coliform, making the Ganga water unfit for bathing at several locations.

Although subsequent statistical analysis suggested better water quality, the issue has brought renewed attention to the persistent pollution problems in Indian rivers.

Why River Pollution Matters

River pollution not only endangers public health but also causes ecological degradation, disrupts biodiversity, and weakens aquatic ecosystems. Ironically, although India is one of the first countries to recognize rivers as "living entities," they continue to suffer from unprecedented levels of contamination.

The Data Speaks: Understanding the Extent of Pollution

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) – A Key Indicator

Under the National Water Quality Monitoring Programme, any river stretch with a BOD of more than 3 mg/L is marked as polluted and unfit for outdoor bathing. BOD measures the oxygen required to decompose organic material in water.

• As per CPCB’s 2022 report, there are 311 polluted river stretches across 279 rivers in India.

• 46 river stretches had BOD levels above 30 mg/L, indicating dangerously high organic pollution.

• Maharashtra has the highest number of polluted stretches (55), while Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh have the most highly polluted stretches (6 each).

• The Cooum River in Tamil Nadu recorded a BOD over 345 mg/L, the highest in the country.

Parameter	Data
Total Polluted River Stretches (2022)	311
Total Polluted Rivers	279
River Stretches with BOD > 30 mg/L	46
Most Polluted River Stretch	Cooum River (BOD > 345 mg/L)
State with Most Polluted Stretches	Maharashtra (55 stretches)
States with Most Highly Polluted Stretches	Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh (6 each)

Fecal Coliform – Indicator of Sewage Contamination

Fecal coliform bacteria, found in human and animal waste, indicate sewage contamination in water. High fecal coliform levels pose serious health risks, as they increase the chances of waterborne diseases like cholera, dysentery, and typhoid. The presence of these bacteria in rivers is a direct consequence of untreated sewage discharge, poor sanitation infrastructure, and inadequate waste management.

CPCB’s 2022–23 annual report revealed that in a monitoring exercise across 97 locations in Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal, 52 locations showed fecal coliform levels exceeding 2500 MPN/100 ml, far beyond safe limits.

Major Causes of River Pollution in India

1. Untreated Sewage – The Primary Culprit

Over 60% of untreated domestic sewage is released directly into rivers every day, making this the most significant cause of water contamination in India.

2. Industrial Effluents

Discharges from industries like chemicals, sugar, paper, and tanneries contain toxic substances. The Supreme Court recently described the pollution of the Palar River by tanneries in Tamil Nadu as 'ecocide', highlighting the seriousness of industrial pollution.

3. Municipal Solid Waste

Poor waste disposal practices lead to millions of tonnes of solid waste being dumped into rivers annually, affecting both river flow and aquatic life.

4. Agricultural Runoff

Runoff from fields carries pesticides and fertilizers, causing chemical contamination and eutrophication, which raises BOD and depletes oxygen in water bodies.

5. Sand Mining and Encroachments

Unregulated sand mining and illegal encroachments disturb river ecosystems, increase flood risks, and often contribute to water pollution due to lack of proper waste handling.

Legal Framework and Policy Response

Evolution of Legal Framework to Control River Pollution in India

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

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Water Cess Act, 1977

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Environment Protection Act, 1986

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Environment Protection Rules, 1986

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National Water Policy, 2012

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Waste Management Rules (Solid, Biomedical, E-waste, etc.)

1. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 – established the CPCB and State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs).

2. Water Cess Act, 1977 – levies charges on water use to fund pollution control.

3. Environment Protection Act, 1986 – umbrella legislation under which various discharge standards and rules were notified.

4. National Water Policy, 2012 – emphasizes improving sanitation and sewage treatment to protect water bodies.

Despite this, weak enforcement and poor inter-agency coordination continue to hinder effective pollution control.

River Rejuvenation Efforts: Initiatives and Outcomes

1. Ganga Action Plan (GAP) – Launched in 1985, implemented in two phases but limited by poor management and technological constraints.

2. National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) – Merged with GAP in 1996 but failed to produce desired outcomes.

3. Yamuna Action Plan – Initiated in 1993 but faced challenges similar to GAP.

4. Namami Gange Programme (NGP) – Launched in 2014, with a holistic approach, addressing sewage treatment, industrial effluent management, and public participation.

   1. Till December 2024, only ₹19,271 crores have been spent, less than half of the allocated funds to be used by 2026.

   2. Persistent issues: illegal encroachments, poor compliance, and unmanaged waste dumping.

Programme	Launch Year	Key Focus	Status/Challenges
Ganga Action Plan	1985	Sewage treatment	Limited success
Yamuna Action Plan	1993	Pollution control	Faced similar issues
Namami Gange Programme	2014	Holistic rejuvenation	Progress made; challenges remain

The Way Forward: From Crisis to Clean Rivers

1. Community Engagement: Awareness campaigns and behavioral change are critical to tackling waste mismanagement.

2. Advanced Technology: Use real-time monitoring, AI, and GIS tools for tracking pollution levels and streamlining waste treatment processes.

3. Policy Reinforcement: Strengthen enforcement of environmental laws and improve coordination between CPCB, SPCBs, industries, and local governments.

4. Curb Encroachments and Sand Mining: Restore natural river flows and protect aquatic habitats by addressing these disruptive activities.

5. Stakeholder Collaboration: A unified effort between the government, industries, civil society, and citizens is essential for long-term river rejuvenation.

India’s rivers are not just water bodies — they are lifelines of civilization and culture. Restoring them to their natural glory is no longer optional; it is an environmental and moral imperative. A blend of technology, policy, community participation, and strong governance is the need of the hour to reverse the tide of pollution and ensure sustainable water resources for future generations.